What are the benefits of meditation?

What are the benefits of meditation?

Meditation can offer many benefits to people of all ages—creative Improved Focus. One of the key benefits of regular meditation is that it improves focus. By doing some meditation each day, anyone will be able to improve their concentration span and alertness. Meditating allows for an increase in creative thinking, practical intelligence, and IQ functions of the brain.

Reduced Stress Levels

As a result of regular meditation, One can reduce their stress levels and develop greater alertness. They also have better resistance to the effects of stress during times of difficult situations. Meditation helps to develop the skills to calmly and peacefully confront and tackle stressful situations as they arise.

Improved Brain Efficiency

By engaging in daily meditation, One can develop the ability to recall information and problem-solve more quickly and easily. Meditation also helps to improve decision-making abilities.

Reduced Chances of Depression and Anxiety

One who regularly encounters stressful situations which can predispose them to depression and anxiety. However, meditation can help and reduces the chance of depression.

Improved Self-Confidence

Throughout their whole life, They will face situations in which they have to confront public speaking situations. For someone who lacks confidence, these situations can be nerve-wracking and cause anxiety. Yet meditation can support them to develop their self-confidence and help them develop a more optimistic and assured mindset when approaching new challenges or different ways of working.

 Reduced Chances of Developing Addiction

One can find themselves on the wrong pathway or under the influence of poor company for many reasons. Meditation can provide them with the skills they need to develop the confidence to refuse and to resist bad habits with greater ease.

 Improved Personal Transformation

Meditation can have a truly transformational effect on people. Among its many benefits, meditation helps improve One’s self-esteem, which helps create one who is outspoken, confident, and happy in themselves. As a result, one finds that he can handle difficult situations and peer pressure more easily. One also learns to be more patient and develop better listening skills. Consequently, they are better equipped to create positive relationships with others and are better prepared to learn new things.

Lowered Risk of Disease

Meditation equips each with the skills needed to abolish negative thoughts. In this way, meditation enables each to combat several diseases such as anxiety, depression, and stress (as mentioned above). The other disease states it can help lower the risk of include blood pressure, pain, irritable bowel syndrome, and ulcerative colitis.  It also helps to improve one’s overall wellness.

Classifications

In the West, meditation techniques have sometimes been thought of in two broad categories: focused (or concentrative) meditation and open monitoring or mindfulness meditation.

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Direction of mental attention… A practitioner can focus intensively on one particular object (so-called concentrative meditation), on all mental events that enter the field of awareness (so-called mindfulness meditation), or both specific focal points and the field of awareness.

Focused methods include paying attention to the breath, to an idea or feeling (such as mettā (loving-kindness)), to a kōan, or a mantra (such as in transcendental meditation), and single point meditation. Open monitoring methods include mindfulness, Shikantaza, and other awareness states. Practices using both methods include vipassana (which uses Anapanasati as a preparation) and Samatha (calm-abiding). In “No thought” methods, “the practitioner is fully alert, aware, and in control of their faculties but does not experience any unwanted thought activity.” This contrasts with the common meditative approaches of being detached from and non-judgmental of thoughts, but not of aiming for thoughts to cease. In the meditation practice of the Sahaja yoga spiritual movement, the focus is on thoughts ceasing. Clear light yoga also aims at a state of no mental content, as does the no-thought state taught by Huineng and Yaoshan Weiyan. One proposal is that transcendental meditation and possibly other techniques be grouped as an “automatic self-transcending” set of techniques. Other typologies include dividing meditation into concentrative, generative, receptive, and reflective practices.

Frequency

The Transcendental Meditation technique recommends the practice of 20 minutes twice per day. Some techniques suggest less time, especially when starting meditation, and Richard Davidson has quoted research saying benefits can be achieved with a practice of only 8 minutes per day. Some meditators practice for much longer, particularly when on a course or retreat. Some meditators find practice best in the hours before dawn.

Posture

Asanas and positions such as the full-lotus, half-lotus, Burmese, Seiza, and kneeling positions are popular in Buddhism, Jainism, and Hinduism. However, other postures such as sitting, supine (lying), and standing are also used. Meditation is also sometimes done while walking, known as kinhin while doing a simple task mindfully, known as Samu, or while lying down, known as savasana.

Use of prayer beads

Some religions have traditions of using prayer beads as tools in devotional meditation. Most prayer beads and Christian rosaries consist of pearls or beads linked together by a thread. The Roman Catholic rosary is a string of beads containing five sets with ten small beads. The Hindu Japa mala has 108 beads (the figure 108 in itself having spiritual significance) and those used in Gaudiya Vaishnavism, the Hare Krishna tradition, Jainism, and Buddhist prayer beads. Each bead is counted once as a person recites a mantra until the person has gone all the way around the mala. The Muslim misbaha has 99 beads.

Striking the meditator

The Buddhist literature has many stories of Enlightenment being attained through disciples being struck by their masters. According to T. Griffith Foulk, the encouragement stick was an integral part of the Zen practice:

Meditation is when an individual uses a technique – such as mindfulness or focusing the mind on a particular object, thought, or activity – to train attention and awareness and achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm and stable state. Scholars have found meditation difficult to define, as practices vary both between traditions and within them.

Meditation has been practiced since 1500 BCE antiquity in numerous religious traditions, often as part of the path towards enlightenment and self-realization. The earliest records of meditation (Dhyana) come from the Hindu traditions of Vedantism, and meditation has a long tradition of being a practice in Hinduism.  Since the 19th century, Asian meditative techniques have spread to other cultures where they have also found application in non-spiritual contexts, such as business and health.

Meditation may be used to reduce stress, anxiety, depression, and pain and increase peace, perception,  self-concept, and well-being. Meditation is under research to define its possible health (psychological, neurological, and cardiovascular) and other effects.

The English meditation is derived from Old French meditation, in turn from Latin meditation from a verb meditate, meaning “to think, contemplate, devise, ponder.” The use of the term meditation as part of a formal, stepwise meditation process goes back to the 12th-century monk Guigo II.

Apart from its historical usage, the term meditation was introduced as a translation for Eastern spiritual practices, referred to as dhyāna in Hinduism and Buddhism. It comes from the Sanskrit root dhyana, meaning to contemplate or meditate. The term “meditation” in English may also refer to practices from Islamic Sufism or other traditions such as Jewish Kabbalah and Christian Hesychasm.

Definitions

Meditation has proven difficult to define as it covers a wide range of dissimilar practices in different traditions. In popular usage, the word “meditation” and the phrase “meditative practice” are often used imprecisely to designate practices found across many cultures. These can include almost anything that is claimed to train the mind’s attention or to teach calm or compassion. There remains no definition of necessary and sufficient meditation criteria that have achieved universal or widespread acceptance within the modern scientific community. In 1971, Claudio Naranjo noted that “The word ‘meditation’ has been used to designate a variety of practices that differ enough from one another so that we may find trouble in defining what meditation. A 2009 study noted a “persistent lack of consensus in the literature” and “seeming intractability of defining meditation.”

Dictionary definitions

Dictionaries give both the original Latin meaning of “think[ing] deeply about (something)”; as well as the popular usage of ” focusing one’s mind for a period of time,” “the act of giving your attention to only one thing, either as a religious activity or as a way of becoming calm and relaxed,” and “to engage in mental exercise (such as concentrating on one’s breathing or repetition of a mantra) to reach a heightened level of spiritual awareness.”

Scholarly definitions

In modern psychological research, meditation has been defined and characterized in a variety of ways. Many of these emphasize the role of attention and characterize the practice of meditation as attempts to get beyond the reflexive, “discursive thinking” or “logic” mind to achieve a deeper, more devout, or more relaxed state.

Bond et al. (2009) identified criteria for defining practice as meditation “for use in a comprehensive systematic review of the therapeutic use of meditation,” using “a 5-round Delphi study with a panel of 7 experts in meditation research” who were also trained in diverse but empirically highly studied (Eastern-derived or clinical) forms of meditation.

three main criteria […] as essential to any meditation practice: the use of a defined technique, logic relaxation, and a self-induced state/mode.

Other criteria deemed important [but not essential] involve a state of psychophysical relaxation, the use of a self-focus skill or anchor, the presence of a state of suspension of logical thought processes, a religious/spiritual/philosophical context, or a state of mental silence.

[…] It is plausible that meditation is best thought of as a natural category of techniques best captured by ‘family resemblances‘ […] or by the related ‘prototype’ model of concepts.”

Several other definitions of meditation have been used by influential modern reviews of research on meditation across multiple traditions:

• Walsh & Shapiro (2006): “[M]editation refers to a family of self-regulation practices that focus on training attention and awareness to bring mental processes under greater voluntary control and thereby foster general mental well-being and development and/or specific capacities such as calm, clarity, and concentration.”
• Cahn & Polich (2006): “[M]editation is used to describe practices that self-regulate the body and mind, thereby affecting mental events by engaging a specific attentional set…. regulation of attention is the central commonality across the many divergent methods.”
• Jevning et al. (1992): “We define meditation… as a stylized mental technique… repetitively practiced to attain a subjective experience that is frequently described as very restful, silent, and of heightened alertness, often characterized as blissful.”
• Goleman (1988): “the need for the meditator to retrain his attention, whether through concentration or mindfulness, is the single invariant ingredient in… every meditation system.”

Separation of technique from tradition

Some of the difficulty in precisely defining meditation has been recognizing the particularities of the many various traditions, and theories and practices can differ within a tradition. Taylor noted that even within a faith such as “Hindu” or “Buddhist,” schools and individual teachers may teach distinct types of meditation. Ornstein noted that “Most meditation techniques do not exist as solitary practices but are only artificially separable from an entire system of practice and belief.” For instance, while monks meditate as part of their everyday lives, they also engage the codified rules and live together in monasteries in specific cultural settings that go along with their meditative practices.

Indian religions

There are many schools and styles of meditation within Hinduism. In pre-modern and traditional Hinduism, Yoga and Dhyana are practiced to realize the union of one’s eternal self or soul, one’s ātman. In Advaita Vedanta, this is equated with the omnipresent and non-dual Brahman. In the dualistic Yoga school and Samkhya, the Self is called Purusha, a pure consciousness separate from matter. Depending on the tradition, the liberation event is named moksha, vimukti, or kaivalya.

The earliest clear references to meditation in Hindu literature are in the middle Upanishads and the Mahabharata (including the Bhagavad Gita). According to Gavin Flood, the earlier Brihadaranyaka Upanishad describes meditation when it states that “having become calm and concentrated, one perceives the self (ātman) within oneself.”

One of the most influential texts of classical Hindu Yoga is Patañjali‘s Yoga sutras (c. 400 CE), a text associated with Yoga and Samkhya, which outlines eight limbs leading to kaivalya aloneness. These are ethical discipline (Yamas), rules (niyamas), physical postures (āsanas), breath control (prāṇāyama), withdrawal from the senses (pratyāhāra), one-pointedness of mind (dhāraṇā), meditation (dhyāna), and finally samādhi.

Later developments in Hindu meditation include the compilation of Hatha Yoga (forceful yoga) compendiums like the Hatha Yoga Pradipika, the development of Bhakti yoga as a major form of meditation, and Tantra. Another important Hindu yoga text is the Yoga Yajnavalkya, which uses Hatha Yoga and Vedanta Philosophy.

Jainism

Jain meditation and spiritual practices system were referred to as salvation-path. It has three parts called the Ratnatraya “Three Jewels”: right perception and faith, right knowledge, and right conduct. Meditation in Jainism aims at realizing the self, attaining salvation, and taking the soul to complete freedom. It aims to reach and remain in the pure state of soul, which is believed to be pure consciousness, beyond any attachment or aversion. The practitioner strives to be just a knower-seer (Gyata-Drashta). Jain meditation can be broadly categorized as Dharma Dhyana and Shukla Dhyana.

Jainism uses meditation techniques such as pindāstha-dhyāna, padāstha-dhyāna, rūpāstha-dhyāna, rūpātita-dhyāna, and savīrya-dhyāna. In padāstha dhyāna, one focuses on a mantra. A mantra could be either a combination of core letters or words on deity or themes. There is a rich tradition of Mantra in Jainism. All Jain followers, irrespective of their sect, whether Digambara or Svetambara, practice mantra. Mantra chanting is an important part of the daily lives of Jain monks and followers. Mantra chanting can be done either loudly or silently in mind.

Contemplation is an ancient and important meditation technique. The practitioner meditates deeply on subtle facts. In any vichāya, one contemplates seven facts – life and non-life, the inflow, bondage, stoppage, removal of karmas, and the final accomplishment of liberation. In apaya vichāya, one contemplates the incorrect insights one indulges, which eventually develops the right insight. In vipaka vichāya, one reflects on the eight causes or basic types of karma. In sansathan vichāya, one thinks about the vastness of the universe and the loneliness of the soul.

Buddhism

Buddhist meditation refers to the meditative practices associated with the religion and philosophy of Buddhism. Core meditation techniques have been preserved in ancient Buddhist texts and have proliferated and diversified through teacher-student transmissions. Buddhists pursue meditation as part of the path toward awakening and nirvana. The closest words for meditation in the classical languages of Buddhism are bhāvanā, jhāna/dhyāna, and vipassana.

Buddhist meditation techniques have become popular in the wider world, with many non-Buddhists taking them up. There is considerable homogeneity across meditative practices – such as breath meditation and various recollections (anussati) – across Buddhist schools, as well as significant diversity. In the Theravāda tradition, there are over fifty methods for developing mindfulness and forty for developing concentration, while in the Tibetan tradition, there are thousands of visualization meditations. Most classical and contemporary Buddhist meditation guides are school-specific.

According to the Theravada and Sarvastivada commentatorial traditions and the Tibetan tradition, the Buddha identified two paramount mental qualities that arise from wholesome meditative practice:

• “serenity” or “tranquility” (Pali: samatha) which steadies, composes, unifies, and concentrates the mind;
• “insight” (Pali: vipassana) enables one to see, explore and discern “formations” (conditioned phenomena based on the five aggregates).

Through the meditative development of serenity, one can weaken the obscuring hindrances and bring the mind to a collected, pliant, and still state (samadhi). This quality of mind then supports the development of insight and wisdom (Prajñā), which is the quality of mind that can “clearly see” (vipassana) the nature of phenomena. What exactly is to be seen varies within the Buddhist traditions. In Theravada, all phenomena are to be seen as impermanent, suffering, not-self, and empty. When this happens, one develops dispassion (vairagya) for all phenomena, including all negative qualities and hindrances, and lets them go. Through the release of the hindrances and ending of craving through the meditative development of insight, one gains liberation.

In the modern era, Buddhist meditation saw increasing popularity due to the influence of Buddhist modernism on Asian Buddhism and western lay interest in Zen and the Vipassana movement. The spread of Buddhist meditation to the Western world paralleled the spread of Buddhism in the West. The modernized concept of mindfulness (based on the Buddhist term sati) and related meditative practices have led to mindfulness-based therapies.

Sikhism

In Sikhism, Simran (meditation) and good deeds are necessary to achieve the devotee’s Spiritual goals; without good deeds, meditation is futile. When Sikhs meditate, they aim to feel God‘s presence and emerge in the divine light. Only God’s divine will or order allows a devotee to desire to begin to meditate. Nām Japnā ( NAAM JAPU) involves focusing one’s attention on God’s names or great attributes.

East Asian religions

Taoism

Taoist meditation has developed techniques including concentration, visualization, qi cultivation, contemplation, and mindfulness meditations in its long history. Traditional Daoist meditative practices were influenced by Chinese Buddhism from around the 5th century and influenced Traditional Chinese medicine and the Chinese martial arts.

Livia Kohn distinguishes three basic types of Taoist meditation: “concentrative,” “insight,” and “visualization.” Ding 定 (literally means “decide; settle; stabilize”) refers to “deep concentration”, “intent contemplation”, or “perfect absorption”. Guan 觀 (lit. “watch; observe; view”) meditation seeks to merge and attain unity with the Dao. Tang Dynasty developed it (618–907) Taoist masters based upon the Tiantai Buddhist practice of Vipassanā “insight” or “wisdom” meditation. Cun 存 (lit. “exist; be present; survive”) has a sense of “to cause to exist; to make present” in the meditation techniques popularized by the Taoist Shangqing and Lingbao Schools. A meditator visualizes or actualizes solar and lunar essences, lights, and deities within their body, which supposedly results in health and longevity, even xian 仙/仚/僊, “immortality.”

The (late 4th century BCE) Guanzi essay Neiye “Inward training” is the oldest received writing on qi cultivation and breath-control meditation techniques. For instance, “When you enlarge your mind and let go of it when you relax your vital breath and expand it when your body is calm and unmoving: And you can maintain the One and discard the myriad disturbances. … This is called “revolving the vital breath”: Your thoughts and deeds seem heavenly.”

The (c. 3rd century BCE) Taoist Zhuangzi records zugzwang or “sitting forgetting” meditation. Confucius asked his disciple Yan Hui to explain what “sit and forget” means: “I slough off my limbs and trunk, dim my intelligence, depart from my form, leave knowledge behind, and become identical with the Transformational Thoroughfare.”

Taoist meditation practices are central to Chinese martial arts (and Japanese martial arts), especially the qi-related neijia “internal martial arts.” Some well-known examples are daoyin “guiding and pulling,” qigong “life-energy exercises,” neigong “internal exercises,” neidan “internal alchemy,” and taijiquan “great ultimate boxing,” which is thought of as moving meditation. One common explanation contrasts “movement in stillness,” referring to energetic visualization of qi circulation in qigong and zuochan “seated meditation,” versus “stillness in movement referring to a state of meditative calm in taijiquan forms. Also, the unification or middle road forms such as Wuxingheqidao seek the unification of internal alchemical forms with more external forms.

Abrahamic religions

Judaism

Judaism has made use of meditative practices for thousands of years.^[79][80] For instance, in the Torah, the patriarch Isaac is described as going “לשוח” (lasuach) in the field – a term understood by all commentators as some type of meditative practice (Genesis 24:63). Similarly, there are indications throughout the Tanakh (the Hebrew Bible) that the prophets meditated. In the Old Testament, there are two Hebrew words for meditation: hāgâ (Hebrew: הגה‎), to sigh or murmur, but also to meditate, and sîḥâ (Hebrew: שיחה‎), to muse or rehearse in one’s mind.

Classical Jewish texts espouse a wide range of meditative practices, often associated with the cultivation of kavanah or intention. The first layer of rabbinic law, the Mishnah, describes ancient sages “waiting” for an hour before their prayers “to direct their hearts to the Omnipresent One (Mishnah Berakhot 5:1). Other early rabbinic texts include instructions for visualizing the Divine Presence (B. Talmud Sanhedrin 22a) and breathing with conscious gratitude for every breath (Genesis Rabba 14:9).

One of the best-known types of meditation in early Jewish mysticism was the work of the Merkabah, from the root /R-K-B/ meaning “chariot” (of God). Some meditative traditions have been encouraged in Kabbalah, and some Jews have described Kabbalah as an inherently meditative field of study. Kabbalistic meditation often involves the mental visualization of the supernal realms. Aryeh Kaplan has argued that the ultimate purpose of Kabbalistic meditation is to understand and cleave to the Divine.

Meditation has been of interest to a wide variety of modern Jews. In modern Jewish practice, one of the best known meditative practices is called “hitbodedut“ (התבודדות, alternatively transliterated as “hisbodedus”), and is explained in Kabbalistic, Hasidic, and Mussar writings, especially the Hasidic method of Rabbi Nachman of Breslav. The word derives from the Hebrew word “boded” (בודד), meaning the state of being alone. Another Hasidic system is the Habad method of “hisbonenus,” related to the Sephirah of “Binah,” Hebrew for understanding. This practice is the analytical, reflective process of understanding a mystical concept well that follows and internalizes its study in Hasidic writings. The Musar Movement, founded by Rabbi Israel Salanter in the middle of the nineteenth century, emphasized meditative practices of introspection and visualization that could help to improve moral character. Conservative rabbi Alan Lew has emphasized meditation playing an important role in the process of teshuvah (repentance). Jewish Buddhists have adopted Buddhist styles of meditation.

Christianity

Christian meditation is a term for a form of prayer in which a structured attempt is made to get in touch with and deliberately reflect upon the revelations of God. The word meditation comes from the Latin word meditate, which means to concentrate. Christian meditation is the process of deliberately focusing on specific thoughts (e.g., a biblical scene involving Jesus and the Virgin Mary) and reflecting on their meaning in the context of the love of God. Christian meditation is sometimes taken to mean the middle level in a broad three-stage characterization of prayer: it then involves more reflection than first-level vocal prayer. Still, it is more structured than the multiple layers of contemplation in Christianity.

The Rosary is a devotion to the meditation of the mysteries of Jesus and Mary. “The gentle repetition of its prayers makes it an excellent means of moving into deeper meditation. It allows us to open ourselves to God’s word, to refine our interior gaze by turning our minds to the life of Christ. The first principle is that meditation is learned through practice. Many people who practice rosary meditation begin very simply and gradually develop a more sophisticated meditation. The meditator learns to hear an interior voice, the voice of God”.

According to Edmund P. Clowney, Christian meditation contrasts with Eastern forms of meditation as radically as the portrayal of God the Father in the Bible contrasts with depictions of Krishna or Brahman in Indian teachings. Unlike some Eastern styles, most styles of Christian meditation do not rely on the repeated use of mantras and yet are also intended to stimulate thought and deepen meaning. Christian meditation aims to heighten the personal relationship based on the love of God that marks Christian communion. In Aspects of Christian meditation, the Catholic Church warned of potential incompatibilities in mixing Christian and Eastern styles of meditation. In 2003, in A Christian reflection on the New Age, the Vatican announced that the “Church avoids any concept that is close to those of the New Age.”

Islam

Salah is a mandatory act of devotion performed by Muslims five times per day. The body goes through sets of different postures, as the mind attains a level of concentration called khushu.

A second optional type of meditation, called dhikr, meaning remembering and mentioning God, is interpreted in different meditative techniques in Sufism or Islamic mysticism. This became one of the essential elements of Sufism as it was systematized traditionally. It is juxtaposed with fikr (thinking), which leads to knowledge. By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls and the repetition of holy words.

Sufism uses a meditative procedure like Buddhist concentration, involving high-intensity and sharply focused introspection. In the Oveyssi-Shahmaghsoudi Sufi order, for example, muraqaba takes the form of tamarkoz, “concentration” in Persian.

Tafakkur or tadabbur in Sufism literally means reflection upon the universe: this is considered to permit access to a form of cognitive and emotional development that can emanate only from the higher level, i.e., from God. The sensation of receiving divine inspiration awakens and liberates both heart and intellect, permitting such inner growth that the apparently mundane actually takes on the quality of the infinite. Muslim teachings embrace life as a test of one’s submission to God.

Dervishes of certain Sufi orders practice whirling, a form of physically active meditation.

Bahá’í Faith

In the teachings of the Bahá’í Faith, meditation is a primary tool for spiritual development, involving reflection on the words of God. While prayer and meditation are linked, where meditation generally happens in a prayerful attitude, prayer is seen specifically as turning toward God. Meditation is seen as a communion with one’s self where one focuses on the divine.

In Bahá’í teachings, the purpose of meditation is to strengthen one’s understanding of the words of God and to make one’s soul more susceptible to their potentially transformative power,^[116] more receptive to the need for both prayer and meditation to bring about and maintain a spiritual communion with God.^[118]

Bahá’u’lláh, the religion’s founder, never specified any particular form of meditation, and thus each person is free to choose their own form. However, he did state that Bahá’ís should read a passage of the Bahá’í writings twice a day, once in the morning and once in the evening, and meditate on it. He also encouraged people to reflect on their actions and worth at the end of each day. During the Nineteen Day Fast, a period of the year during which Bahá’ís adhere to a sunrise-to-sunset fast, they meditate and pray to reinvigorate their spiritual forces.

Neo-pagan and occult

Movements that use magic, such as Wicca, Thelema, Neopaganism, and occultism, often require their adherents to meditate as a preliminary to the magical work. This is because magic is often thought to require a particular state of mind to make contact with spirits or because one has to visualize one’s goal or otherwise keep intent focused for a long period during the ritual to see the desired outcome. Meditation practice in these religions usually revolves around visualization, absorbing energy from the universe or higher self, directing one’s internal energy, and inducing various trance states. Meditation and magic practice often overlap in these religions as meditation is often seen as merely a stepping stone to supernatural power. The meditation sessions may be peppered with various chants and spells.

Modern spirituality

Mantra meditation, using a Japa mala and especially with a focus on the Hare Krishna maha-mantra, is a central practice of the Gaudiya Vaishnava faith tradition and the International Society for Krishna Consciousness (ISKCON), also known as the Hare Krishna movement. Other popular New Religious Movements include the Ramakrishna Mission, Vedanta Society, Divine Light Mission, Chinmaya Mission, Osho, Sahaja Yoga, Transcendental Meditation, Oneness University, Brahma Kumaris, and Vihangam Yoga.

New Age

New Age meditations are often influenced by Eastern philosophy, mysticism, yoga, Hinduism, and Buddhism, yet may contain some degree of Western influence. In the West, meditation found its mainstream roots through the social revolution of the 1960s and 1970s, when many of the youth rebelled against traditional religion as a reaction against what some perceived as the failure of Christianity to provide spiritual and ethical guidance. As practiced by the early hippies, New Age meditation is regarded for its techniques of blanking out the mind and releasing oneself from conscious thinking. This is often aided by repetitive chanting of a mantra or focusing on an object. New Age meditation evolved into a range of purposes and practices, from serenity and balance to access to other realms of consciousness to the concentration of energy in group meditation to the supreme goal of samadhi, as in the ancient yogic practice of meditation.

Secular applications

Clinical applications

The US National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health states that “Meditation is a mind and body practice that has a long history of use for increasing calmness and physical relaxation, improving psychological balance, coping with illness, and enhancing overall health and well-being.”^[123][11] A 2014 review found that mindfulness meditation practice for two to six months by people undergoing long-term psychiatric or medical therapy could produce small improvements in anxiety, pain, or depression. In 2017, the American Heart Association issued a scientific statement that meditation may be a reasonable adjunct practice to help reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases, with the qualification that meditation needs to be better defined in higher-quality clinical research of these disorders.

Low-quality evidence indicates that meditation may help irritable bowel syndrome, insomnia, cognitive decline in the elderly, and post-traumatic stress disorder.

Meditation in the workplace

A 2010 review of the literature on spirituality and performance in organizations found increased corporate meditation programs.

As of 2016, around a quarter of U.S. employers were using stress reduction initiatives. The goal was to help reduce stress and improve reactions to stress. Aetna now offers its program to its customers. Google also implements mindfulness, offering more than a dozen meditation courses, with the most prominent one, “Search Inside Yourself,” having been implemented since 2007.  General Mills offers the Mindful Leadership Program Series, a course that combines mindfulness meditation, yoga, and dialogue to develop the mind’s capacity to pay attention.

Sound-based meditation

Herbert Benson of Harvard Medical School conducted a series of clinical tests on meditators from various disciplines, including the Transcendental Meditation technique and Tibetan Buddhism. In 1975, Benson published a book titled The Relaxation Response, where he outlined his own version of meditation for relaxation. Also, in the 1970s, the American psychologist Patricia Carrington developed a similar technique called Clinically Standardized Meditation (CSM). In Norway, another sound-based method called Acem Meditation developed a psychology of meditation and has been the subject of several scientific studies.

Many researchers have used biofeedback since the 1950s to enter deeper states of mind.

History

From ancient times

The history of meditation is intimately bound up with the religious context within which it was practiced. Some authors have even suggested that the emergence of the capacity for focused attention, an element of many meditation methods, may have contributed to the latest phases of human biological evolution. Some of the earliest references to meditation are found in the Hindu Vedas of India. Wilson translates the most famous Vedic mantra “Gayatri” as: “We meditate on that desirable light of the divine Savitri, who influences our pious rites” (Rigveda: Mandala-3, Sukta-62, Rcha-10). Around the 6th to 5th centuries BCE, other forms of meditation developed via Confucianism and Taoism in China and Hinduism, Jainism, and early Buddhism in India.

In the Roman Empire, by 20 BCE, Philo of Alexandria had written on some form of “spiritual exercises” involving attention (prosoche) and concentration. By the 3rd century, Plotinus had developed meditative techniques.

The Pāli Canon from the 1st century BCE considers Buddhist meditation as a step towards liberation. By t n as Chan in China, Thiền in Vietnam, and Seon in Korea). The Silk Road transmission of Buddhism introduced meditation to other Asian countries, and in 653, the first meditation hall was opened in Singapore. Returning from China around 1227, Dōgen wrote the instructions for zazen.

Medieval

The Islamic practice of Dhikr had involved the repetition of the 99 Names of God since the 8th or 9th century. By the 12th century, the practice of Sufism included specific meditative techniques, and its followers practiced breathing controls repetition of holy words. Interactions with Indians or the Sufis may have influenced the Eastern Christian meditation approach to hesychasm, but this can not be proved. Between the 10th and 14th centuries, hesychasm was developed, particularly on Mount Athos in Greece, and involves repeating the Jesus prayer.

Western Christian meditation contrasts with most other approaches in that it does not involve the repetition of any phrase or action and requires no specific posture. Western Christian meditation progressed from the 6th-century practice of Bible reading among Benedictine monks called Lectio Divina, i.e., divine reading. Its four formal steps as a “ladder” were defined by the monk Guigo II in the 12th century with the Latin terms lectio, meditation, operation, and contemplation (i.e., read, ponder, pray, contemplate). Western Christian meditation was further developed by saints such as Ignatius of Loyola and Teresa of Avila in the 16th century.

Modern dissemination in the West

Meditation has spread in the West since the late 19th century, accompanying increased travel and communication among cultures worldwide. Most prominent has been the transmission of Asian-derived practices to the West. In addition, interest in some Western-based meditative practices has been revived, and these have been disseminated to a limited extent to Asian countries.

Ideas about Eastern meditation had begun “seeping into American popular culture even before the American Revolution through the various sects of European occult Christianity,” and such ideas “came pouring in [to America] during the era of the transcendentalists, especially between the 1840s and the 1880s. The following decades saw further spread of these ideas to America:

The World Parliament of Religions, held in Chicago in 1893, was the landmark event that increased Western awareness of meditation. This was the first time that Western audiences on American soil received Asian spiritual teachings from Asians themselves. Thereafter, Swami Vivekananda… [founded] various Vedanta ashrams… Anagarika Dharmapala lectured at Harvard on Theravada Buddhist meditation in 1904; Abdul Baha … toured the US teaching the principles of Bahai, and Soyen Shaku toured in 1907 teaching Zen..

More recently, in the 1960s, another surge in Western interest in meditative practices began. The rise of communist political power in Asia led to many Asian spiritual teachers taking refuge in Western countries, oftentimes as refugees. In addition to spiritual forms of meditation, secular forms of meditation have taken root. Rather than focusing on spiritual growth, secular meditation emphasizes stress reduction, relaxation, and self-improvement.

Research

Research on the processes and effects of meditation is a subfield of neurological research. Modern scientific techniques, such as fMRI and EEG, were used to observe neurological responses during meditation. Concerns have been raised on the quality of meditation research, including the particular characteristics of individuals who tend to participate.

Since the 1970s, clinical psychology and psychiatry have developed meditation techniques for numerous psychological conditions. Mindfulness practice is employed in psychology to alleviate mental and physical conditions, such as reducing depression, stress, and anxiety. Mindfulness is also used in drug addiction treatment, although the quality of research has been poor. Studies demonstrate that meditation has a moderate effect on reducing pain. There is insufficient evidence for any effect of meditation on positive mood, attention, eating habits, sleep, or body weight.

A 2017 systematic review and meta-analysis of the effects of meditation on empathy, compassion, and prosocial behaviors found that meditation practices had small to medium effects on self-reported and observable outcomes, concluding that such practices can “improve positive prosocial emotions and behaviors.  However, a meta-review published on Nature showed that the evidence is fragile and “that the effects of meditation on compassion were only significant when compared to passive control groups suggests that other forms of active interventions (like watching a nature video) might produce similar outcomes to meditation.”

The 2012 US National Health Interview Survey (NHIS) (34,525 subjects) found 8% of US adults used meditation, with lifetime and 12-month prevalence of meditation use of 5.2% and 4.1%, respectively. In the 2017 NHIS survey, meditation use among workers was 10% (up from 8% in 2002)

Criticisms

The psychologist Thomas Joiner argues that modern mindfulness meditation has been “corrupted” for commercial gain by self-help celebrities and suggests that it encourages unhealthy narcissistic and self-obsessed mindsets.

Potential adverse effects

Meditation has been correlated with unpleasant experiences in some people.

In one study, published in 2019, of 1,232 regular meditators with at least two months of meditation experience, about a quarter reported having had particularly unpleasant meditation-related experiences (such as anxiety, fear, distorted emotions or thoughts, altered sense of self or the world), which they thought may have been caused by their meditation practice. Meditators with high levels of repetitive negative thinking and those who only engage in deconstructive meditation were more likely to report unpleasant side effects. Adverse effects were less frequently reported in women and religious meditators. 

Difficult experiences encountered in meditation are mentioned in traditional sources. Some may be considered to be just an expected part of the process: for example, seven stages of purification mentioned in Theravāda Buddhism, or possible “unwholesome or frightening visions” mentioned in a practical manual on vipassanā meditation.

Meditation, religion, and drugs

Many major traditions in which meditation is practiced, such as Buddhism and Hinduism, advise members not to consume intoxicants. In contrast, others, such as the Rastafarian movements and Native American Church, view drugs as integral to their religious lifestyle.

The fifth of the five precepts of the Pancasila, the ethical code in the Theravada and Mahayana Buddhist traditions, states that adherents must: “abstain from fermented and distilled beverages that cause heedlessness.

On the other hand, the ingestion of psychoactives has been a central feature in many religions’ rituals to produce altered states of consciousness. In several traditional shamanistic ceremonies, drugs are used as agents of ritual. In the Rastafari movement, cannabis is believed to be a gift from Jah and a sacred herb regularly, while alcohol is considered to debase man. Native Americans use peyote as part of a religious ceremony, continuing today.

 

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